PESPEKTIF PENGETAHUAN BERDASARKAN TAKSONOMI BLOOM

Anjani Suryana (37527)

 Jurusan Teknik Fisika FT UGM 
Jln. Grafika 2 Yogyakarta 55281 INDONESIA

Suryana.anjani@gmail.com

Pengetahuan adalah hasil pengindraan manusia atau hasil tahu seseorang terhadap objek melalui indra yang dimilikinya (mata,hidung,mulut,telinga,dan sebagainya). Dengan sendirinya pada saat indra menghasilkan sebuah pengetahuan adalah sangat dipengaruhi oleh intensitas perhatian dan persepsi terhadap objek. Sebagian besar pengetahuan seseorang diperoleh dari indra pendengaran dan penglihatan.

Taksonomi bloom merujuk pada taksonomi yang dibuat untuk tujuan pendidikan. Dalam hal ini tujuan pendidikan dibagi menjadi beberapa domain/ranah dan setiap domain tersebut dibagi lagi menjadi lebih rinci berdasarkan tingkatannya.

Tujuan pendidikan dibagi kedalam 3 domain,yaitu;

1.    Domain kognitif

2.    Domain afektif

3.    Domain psikomotor

Dari setiap ranah tersebut dibagi kembali kedalam beberapa kategori dan subkategori yang berurutan secara bertinggkat,mulai dari tingkah laku yang sederhana sapai tingkah laku yang paling kompleks. Tingkah laku dalam setiap tingkat di asumsikan menyertakan juga tingkah laku dari tingkat yang paling rendah.

Domain kognitif digunakan untuk mengukur kemahiran intelektual,sedangkan domain afektif digunakan untuk mengukukur kemahiran generik,yang telah diterapkan kepada pelajar melalui penglibatan pelajar dalam persatuan-persatuan dan juga dalam berbagai perbincangan secara berkumpulan seperti dalam kursus rekabentuk sistem dan sebagainya. Dan  domain psikomotor bertujuan untuk mengukur kemahiran praktikal dan teknikal.kemahiran ini diterapkan melalui latihan.

Kemahiran kognitif merupakan domain taksonomi yangg digunakan untuk mengukur kemahiran intelektual berdasarkan satu hirarki kognitif yang disusun dati tingkatan rendah ke tingkatan tinggi yaitu; pengetahuan,pemahaman,aplikasi,analisis,sintesis dan penilaian. Taksonomi ini dikenalkan pada tahun 1956 oleh Benjamin S. Bloom untuk tujuan pendidikan.

Pada tahun 1990-an terdapat beberapa perubahan telah dilakukan secara berperingkat. Antara perubahan yang telah dilaksanakan adalah perubahan terminologi. Sebagai contoh, tema pengetahuan,pemahaman,aplikasi,analisis,sintesis dan penilaian ditukarkan kepada mengingat,memahami,mengaplikasi,menganalisis,menilai dan membina.

Setiap kategori dalam revisi taksonomi bloom terdapat subkategori yang memiliki kata kunci berupa kata yang berasosiasi dengan kategori tersebut.

Diagram Taksonomi Bloom

è  Mengingat : mengurutkan,menjelaskan,mengidentifikasi,menamai,menempatkan,mengulangi,menemukan kembali dsb.

è  Memahami:

menafsirkan,meringkas,mengklarisikasikan,membandingkan,menjelaskan,membeberkan dsb.

è  Mengaplikasikan :

Melaksanakan,menjalankan,menggunakan,melakukan,mempraktekan,memilih,menyusun,memulai,menyelesaikan,mendeteksi dll.

è  Menganalisis :

Menguraikan,membandingkan,mengorganisir,menyusun ulang,mengubah stuktur,mengkerangkakan,menyusun outline,mengintegrasikan,membedakan,menyamakan dll.

è  Mengevaluasi :

Menyusun hipotesi,mengkritik,memprediksi,menilai,menguji,membenarkan,menyalahkan dll.

è  Berkreasi :

Merancang,membangun,merencanakan,memproduksi,menemukan,membaharui,menyempurnakan,memperkuat,memperindah dll.

Dalam berbagai aspek dan setelah melalui revisi,taksonomi bloom tetap menggambarkan suatu proses pembelajaran,cara kita memproses suatu informasisehingga dapat bermanfaat dalam kehidupan sehari-hari.

REFERENSI ;

repository.usu.ac.id/.../3/Chapter%20II.pdf

http://www.iaincirebon.ac.id/maksum/?p=14

Essay Writing The Basics

What Does a Good Essay Need?

• An academic essay aims to persuade readers of an idea based on evidence.
• An academic essay should answer a question or task.
• It should have an argument.
• It should try to present or discuss something: develop a ‘thesis’ or a set of closely related points - by reasoning and evidence.
• An academic essay should include relevant examples, supporting evidence and information from academic texts or credible sources.

1. Starting Your Essay

Although there are some basic steps to writing an assignment, essay writing is not a linear process.

You might work through the different stages a number of times in the course of writing an essay.

For example, you may go back to the reading and notetaking stage if you find another useful text, or perhaps to reread to locate specific information.

Start work early

You can’t write a successful essay unless you give yourself enough time

to read, research, think and write. Don’t procrastinate or leave it until the

last minute; start as early as possible.

Define the question and analyse the task

Writing down everything you know about a topic is not enough to make

a good academic essay. Analysing, then answering the essay’s question

or task is central.

• Be sure that you understand exactly what the question requires you to do.
• Identify the key words (like discuss or analyse) and clarify the approach you are required to take.

2. Researching Your Topic

One of the first steps in essay writing is researching. You

must research your essay by reading and finding relevant

information. Reading on the topic enables you to develop a

thesis and answer the essay question.

Where to Start?

Your starting point for your essay is your initial response to the essay topic or question. Your response is based on what you already know. But this is only the starting point. You then need to research, question your response, and find some evidence to help form your answers.

Reading for Your Essay

Begin reading for the essay as early as possible. This will give you plenty of time to familiarise yourself with the topic and develop your ideas. When you begin to look at your readings more closely,

remember to read with a purpose. Ask yourself:

• What do I already know about the topic? Start with what you know. If a topic is unfamiliar, do some introductory reading. Look at your lecture notes and course readings for help.
• What do I need to read to be able to answer the essay question?
• Is this material useful to my topic/argument? 
• Can I use this material to support my answer?

Taking Notes From Your Readings

When you read in-depth and find information relevant to your essay, note it down. Your notes will be the basis of your essay.

Don’t take notes during your first reading. If you are using photocopies, underline or highlight relevant information. You can return to it when you reread and take notes.

Always make notes with the question clearly in mind. You must use evidence to support your argument, so look carefully for relevant information. This can include summaries or direct quotes from texts, useful examples, case studies or statistics.

Make a note of any sources of information you use. Copy down all the bibliographic details of what you read. Include author, date, title, publisher and place of publication. For journal articles, include volume and issue numbers. This will help with your referencing.

3. Organising Your Ideas

Now begin organising your thoughts into an answer.

Your notes should help you to do this.

Thinking it Through

Essay writing requires both creative and critical thinking. 

• Creative thinking encourages you to broaden your ideas. Try techniques like brainstorming or mindmapping.
• Critical thinking encourages you to narrow the focus or scope of your ideas (for example, asking why an example is important to your argument).

Your essay should include both points in favour of and against your argument. You need to evaluate these points - that is, explain why one argument is more important than the other.

4. Writing the Essay

Drafting

Writing a draft essay will help you work out:

• what you need to say 
• how you will answer the question
• which evidence and examples you will use
• whether you have enough information

Write a first draft to try out the structure and framework of your essay. Once you have a draft, you can work on writing well.

Structure

Structure your essay in the most effective way to communicate your ideas and answer the question. All essays should include the following structure:

1. Introduction

Answer the question and provide a summary or ‘road map’ of your essay. Tell the reader what you are going to talk about and what you believe the answer to be. Keep it brief, but mention all your main ideas.

2. Body

The body of your essay is where you answer the question by developing a discussion. Here, you show your knowledge and grasp of material you have read. Offer exposition and evidence. Use relevant examples and authoritative quotes to support your argument. If your question has more than one part, structure the body into sections that deal with each part of the question.

3. Conclusion

The conclusion rounds off the essay. Relate it back to your main ideas or points and reiterate your answer to the question. NEVER introduce new information in your conclusion. The conclusion moves from specific to general.

Essay Paragraphs

Each paragraph in the body of the essay should contain:

1. a topic sentence (or main idea sentence) that states your point; 
2. an explanation of the point you’re making; 
3. evidence. Most of the time, your point should be supported by some form of evidence from your reading, or by an example drawn from the subject area.

Don’t just leave the evidence hanging there - analyse it! Comment on the implication/significance/impact and finish off the paragraph with a critical conclusion you have drawn from the evidence.

5. Referencing Your Essay

All academic essays MUST contain references. Referencing guards against plagiarism, a serious academic offence.

Plagiarism is copying someone else’s words or ideas and presenting them as your own. Make sure you are familiar with the referencing style your faculty or school requires. Most Schools/Faculties have guides specifying the system they prefer. Often Schools/Faculties don’t mind which system you use as long as it is consistent. If this is the case, use the system you are most comfortable with.

Reference Lists

Remember to list all the books and articles you use for the essay in a Reference List. This is a list of all works cited in your essay, and should be the final page.

6. Editing Your Essay

Most essays are dramatically improved by careful editing. Good essays are the product of writing and rewriting. If you have time, put your essay aside for a few days before you begin to edit. This gives you time to gain a perspective on what you have written and to think further about your answer and arguments.

Don’t despair when you find faults in your essay - this is part of the editing process. If you find that you need more information, or your argument has holes in it, keep calm and concentrate on fixing any problems.

Once you have a well-organised and fairly complete draft:

• Revise sentences. Make sure the words you use mean what you think they mean. A good dictionary is a useful tool.
• Check transition signals. Be sure that a reader can follow the sequences of ideas from sentence to sentence, and from paragraph to paragraph.
• Check punctuation and spelling. 

7. Handing Your Essay In

READ the assignment guidelines in your course outlines and find out how your lecturer/tutor would like assignments presented. Make sure you have complied with their requirements and that you know when and where your essay should be handed in.

In General:

1. Make sure you know when, where or to whom your assignment should be handed in. Most schools have a box for  students to submit their essays.
2. Don’t hand in your essay in a plastic folder or sleeve (unless you are asked to do so). ‰
3. Use double-line spacing and a readable font (size 12 at least) ‰
4. Essays should be legible so make sure your essay is easy to read. If possible, type your essay. If not, write neatly on ‰ every second line.
5. Use a cover sheet (available from your school office). ‰
6. Number pages and use wide margins. ‰
7. Print on one side of the page only. ‰
8. Make sure you have an extra copy.

An Examination of AC/HVDC Power Circuits for Interconnecting Bulk Wind Generation with the Electric Grid

1. Introduction

      Increasing share of wind energy systems has prompted a concomitant attention to their integration into major electrical transmission systems, i.e., the grid. Particularly, the promise for large scale generation in offshore and remote locations due to the meteorological consistency of the wind in such locations make bulk power transmission from generation centers to load locations a critical aspect of the emerging future. Despite this promise, the issue of wind turbine interconnection and bulk power transmission to the existing distribution networks has not yet been solved with certainty. High voltage direct current (HVDC) systems have been proposed by numerous authors [1–10] as a solution for integrating renewable and existing sources of energy together in configuration similar to Figure 1. Here, several power converters are used to interface multiple generation sources and load locations in a multi-terminal HVDC interconnection with power converters that may be integrated with each turbine (Cluster 1), or integrated with a group of turbines (Cluster 2). The subject of this paper is an examination of alternative power converter topologies that may be applied in the HVDC
      Although the HVDC power converters may generally be used in either sending or receiving mode, this paper will concentrate on sending power from a generation source using one of the two canonical power converter topologies, current sourced converters (CSCs) or voltage sourced converters (VSCs). In general VSC technologies appear to be favored against the CSC to realize future HVDC installations for a variety of reasons. But a more critical analysis is necessary to establish this generalization in a definitive manner. Additionally, a new HVDC power conversion approach has recently emerged which can be potentially transformerless and utilizes a modular multi-level converter (MMLC). This converter belongs to the aptly named “bridge of bridge” converter (BoBC) family, and holds promise to be a competitive solution in the future of HVDC [11–13]. The performance trade-offs between the three types of converters have not been definitively presented in the literature, particularly in view of the application to bulk power transmission in regard to utility integration of wind power. To be sure, a comparative evaluation of particular solutions for a given application may be made on the basis of several features. Salient power circuit features include: harmonics of waveforms, operating losses, ratings of power converters, reactive component requirements, transformer kVA requirements, and complexity of control. Given the degree of variability based on the application a definitive evaluation appears to be a formidable task. Therefore, in order to maintain a focus in the evaluation, a particular benchmark application is considered in this paper. Furthermore, the evaluation is limited to solutions that feature superior waveform quality arising from high frequency or high pulse number switching with nearly sinusoidal line current waveforms. A focused analytical modeling and design study of a candidate application using the different approaches is performed in order to evaluate their performance. The comparison criteria used for the evaluation include voltage, current and power throughput ratings of the main power circuit components (including transformers, capacitors, and semiconductors), quality of terminal voltage and current waveforms in terms of harmonics, and losses in power semiconductors. Although the trade-offs of complete systems using these alternative approaches may be a complex function of market trends, economic factors and engineering development, and would change considerably with respect to time and location, a preliminary estimate of these metrics together provide a basis for making a first order trade-off among these approaches. In today’s state of the art, doubly fed induction generators operating in the low voltage regime (480/690 V) are most commonly used to realize wind turbine installations. As turbine power levels steadily increase into the 5 MW+ levels, low voltage machine designs become impractical from an efficiency perspective [14]. Following this trend, wind turbine manufacturers may be expected to migrate to medium voltage generators that may be tied to the electric grid via a single power converter. The focus of this paper is to call attention to the properties of the CSC, VSC, and BoBC and compare them in a benchmark application in following this trend. A brief background discussion of each converter is provided in Section 2 and a detailed comparison including a benchmark design follows in Section 3. Section 4 provides a summary of the conclusions.

2. HVDC Converter Topologies, a Brief Review

     This section introduces each of the three converter topologies in consideration and provides a background overview on their operation. Common topologies for each converter as well as operating characteristics are provided. These characteristics are explored further and compared in Section 3. While the review here is brief, and focuses on the salient features from the view of a comparative evaluation, a more detailed discussion on functioning installations of these representative technologies may be found elsewhere [12]. Notably, for a more comprehensive discussion on CSCs in wind applications, the readers may be refer to recent works [15–21]. Similarly, a detailed discussion on the operational features of VSCs in wind generation applications may be found in [8,20–28], while a description and operational features of the BoBC/MMLCs may be found in [13,29–35].

2.1. Current Sourced Converter (CSC)

       Since its inception in the 1950’s the current sourced converter (CSC) has been the workhorse of HVDC transmission systems. Despite a gradual evolution of valve designs and harmonic suppression techniques, the conversion process has remained unchanged. Generation voltage is increased with a step-up transformer operating at the power frequency and rectified to feed a current stiff dc bus as shown in Figure 2(a), consisting of 6-pulse CSCs. In order to maintain the comparative evaluation to be of reasonable complexity while preserving the essential structural elements, the CSC illustration shown in Figure 2(a), along with sub-module realization Figure 2(b) is considered in this study. The results may be suitably modified to study alternative realizations if desired.
       To improve system harmonics CSCs typically use transformers with multiple secondary windings phase shifted from one another to drive independent thyristor bridges. A series or parallel connection of the 6-pulse thyristor bridges results in a higher pulse frequency converter for enhanced performance.
       The switching device of each of the six arms of the rectifier bridge is made up of N sub-modules connected in series to obtain the desired voltage blocking rating. Each sub-module contains a single semiconductor switch, usually a thyristor or an SCR. The rectified output is filtered using an inductor, which may be a discrete component or the transmission line’s inherent inductance, which gives the converter its “current stiff” property. Current stiffness combined with phase controlled rectification make the CSC robust against HVDC line faults.

      Although the CSC is capable of bidirectional power flow, this requires a voltage reversal at the dc terminals when the bridges are realized with thyristors that conduct current in one direction. In practice, bi-directional power flow for CSCs may be achieved by advancing the firing angle to reverse polarity of the output voltage while maintaining current direction thus reversing power flow. However, one should exercise caution in relying on this technique in multi-terminal networks, a simple voltage reversal of the dc terminals alone may not fulfill all the requirements of power flow management across each of the terminals.